Myopia Nutrition References

1. Cordain L, Eaton SB, Brand Miller J, Lindeberg S, Jensen C. An evolutionary analysis of the aetiology and pathogenesis of juvenile-onset myopia. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2003;81(2):125–135.
2. Mescoloto SB, Pongiluppi G, Domene SMA. Ultra-processed food consumption and children and adolescents’ health. J Pediatr. 2024;100(S1):S18–S30.
3. Li FF, Zhu MC, Shao YL, et al. Causal relationships between glycemic traits and myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2023;64(3):7.
4. Berticat C, Mamouni S, Ciais A, et al. Probability of myopia in children with high refined carbohydrates consumption in France. BMC Ophthalmol. 2020;20(1):337.
5. Huang L, Zhang D, Zhou J. Myopia development: multifactorial interplay, molecular mechanisms and possible strategies. Front Med. 2025;12:1638184.
6. Mrugacz M, Zorena K, Pony-Uram M, et al. Interdependence of nutrition, physical activity, and myopia. Nutrients. 2024;16(19):3331.
7. Ba M, Li Z. The impact of lifestyle factors on myopia development: insights and recommendations. AJO Int. 2024;1:100010.
8. Ong A, Huang R. The Sleep–Vision–Nutrition Triad: A Holistic Approach to Myopia. Review of Myopia Management. 2025.
9. Pei L, Mo Y, Duan JG. The differential effects of lutein and zeaxanthin supplementation on myopia prevention in adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Ophthalmol. 2026;19(2):370–378.

Nutrition for Ocular Health

 1 Bazan NG. (2007) Homeostatic regulation of photoreceptor cell integrity: significance of the potent mediator neuroprotectin D1 biosynthesized from docosahexaenoic acid: the Proctor Lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 48(11):4866-81. 

2 Cai J, et al. (2000) Oxidative damage and protection of the RPE. Prog Retin Eye Res. 200019(2):205-21. 

3 Leibovitz, B. E. and B. V. Siegel (1980) Aspects of free radical reactions in biological systems: aging. J Gerontol 35(1): 45-56. 

4 Liles MR et al. (1991) Antioxidant Enzymes in the Aging Human Retinal Pigment Epithelium. Arch Ophthalmol. 109:1285-1288. 

5 Grahn, B. H., P. G. Paterson, et al. (2001) Zinc and the eye. J Am Coll Nutr 20(2 Suppl): 106-118. 

6 Tate et al. 1995. influence of zinc on selected cellular functions of cultured human retinal pigment epithelium. Curr Eye Res. 14(10): 897-903. 7 Wyszynski et al. (1989) A donor-age-dependent change in the activity of alpha-mannosidase in human cultured RPE cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 30: 2341-2347. 

8 Tate DJ Jr, Miceli MV, Newsome DA. 1999. Zinc protects against oxidative damage in cultured human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Free Radic Biol Med. 26(5-6):704-13. 

9 NIH Office of Dietary Supplements Vitamin C fact sheet. Ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitaminC/?print=1 

10 Burton GW, Traber MG, et al. (1990) Vitamin E: antioxidant activity, biokinetics, and bioavailability. Annu Rev Nutr. 1990;10:357-82. 

11 Whitehead, A. J., J. A. Mares, et al. (2006). Macular pigment: a review of current knowledge. Arch Ophthalmol 124(7): 1038-1045. 

12 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2010) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EFSA Journal 8(10):1734. 

13 Age-related Eye Disease Study 2 Protocol. 

14 Nolan, J. M., J. Stack, et al. (2007). Risk factors for age-related maculopathy are associated with a relative lack of macular pigment. Exp Eye Res 84(1): 61-74. 

15 Leibovitz, B. E. and B. V. Siegel (1980). Aspects of free radical reactions in biological systems: aging. J Gerontol 35(1): 45-56. 

16 SanGiovanni, J. P., E. Y. Chew, et al. (2007). The relationship of dietary carotenoid and vitamin A, E, and C intake with age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: AREDS Report No. 22. Arch Ophthalmol 125(9): 1225-1232. 

17 Sangiovanni, J. P., E. Agron, et al. (2009). {omega}-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and 12-y incidence of neovascular age-related macular degeneration and central geographic atrophy: AREDS report 30, a prospective cohort study from the Age-Related Eye Disease Study. Am J Clin Nutr 90(6): 1601-1607. 

18 Tan, J. S., J. J. Wang, et al. (2009). Dietary fatty acids and the 10-year incidence of age-related macular degeneration: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 127(5): 656-665. 

19 Augood, C., U. Chakravarthy, et al. (2008). Oily fish consumption, dietary docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid intakes, and associations with neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr 88(2): 398-406. 

20 Christen,W.G.,. Schaumberg, D.A., et al. (2011). Dietary Omega-3 Fatty Acid and Fish Intake and Incident AgeRelated Macular Degeneration in Women. Arch Ophthalmol 129(7): 921-929. 

21 Ho, L., R. van Leeuwen, et al. (2011). Reducing the genetic risk of age-related macular degeneration with dietary antioxidants, zinc, and omega-3 fatty acids: the Rotterdam study. Arch Ophthalmol 129(6): 758-766. 

22 Miljanović B, Trivedi KA, Dana MR, Gilbard JP, Buring JE, Schaumberg DA. 2005. Relation between dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and clinically diagnosed dry eye syndrome in women. Am J Clin Nutr. 82(4):887-93. 

23 Rand AL, Asbell PA. 2011. Nutritional supplements for dry eye syndrome. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 22(4):279-82. 

24 Wojtowicz JC, et al. 2011. Pilot, prospective, randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled clinical trial of an omega-3 supplement for dry eye. Cornea. 30(3):308-14. 

25 Chew, E. Y., A. S. Lindblad, et al. (2009). Summary results and recommendations from the age-related eye disease study. Arch Ophthalmol 127(12): 1678-1679. 

26 Richer, S., W. Stiles, et al. (2004). Double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of lutein and antioxidant supplementation in the intervention of atrophic age-related macular degeneration: the Veterans LAST study (Lutein Antioxidant Supplementation Trial). Optometry 75(4): 216-230. 

27 Richer S. (2007). LAST II: Differential temporal responses of macular pigment optical density in patients with atrophic age-related macular degeneration to dietary supplementation with xanthophylls. Optometry 78:213-219. 

28 Trieschmann, M., S. Beatty, et al. (2007). Changes in macular pigment optical density and serum concentrations of its constituent carotenoids following supplemental lutein and zeaxanthin: the LUNA study. Exp Eye Res 84(4): 718- 728. 

29 Christen, W.G., Glynn, R.J., et al. (2009) Folic Acid, Vitamin B6, and Vitamin B12 in Combination and Age-related Macular Degeneration in a Randomized Trial of Women. Arch Intern Med. 169(4): 335–341. 

30 Berson EL. 2000. Nutrition and retinal degenerations. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 40(4):93-111. 

31 Christen, W.G., Liu S., et al. (2005). Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cataract in women. Am J Clin Nutr 81: 1417–22. 

32 Mares JA, et al. 2010. Healthy diets and the subsequent prevalence of nuclear cataract in women. Arch Ophthalmol. 128(6):738-49. 

33 Moeller, SM, Voland, R. et al. (2008) Associations between age-related nuclear cataract and lutein and zeaxanthin in the diet and serum in the Carotenoids in Age-Related Eye Disease Study (CAREDS), an ancillary study of the Women's Health Initiative. Arch Ophthalmol. 126(3): 354–364. 

34 Christen, W.G., Glynn, R.J., et al. (2010). Age-related Cataract in a Randomized Trial of Vitamins E and C in Men. Arch Ophthalmol 128(11): 1397–1405. 

35 Christen, WG, Glynn, RJ, et al. (2004). Age-related cataract in a randomized trial of beta-carotene in women. Ophthalmic Epidemiology 11(5): 401–412. 

36 Christen, W.G., Manson, J.E., et al. (2002). A Randomized Trial of Beta Carotene and Age-Related Cataract in US Physicians. Arch Ophthalmol 120: 372-378. 

37 Engin, K. N. (2009). Alpha-tocopherol: looking beyond an antioxidant. Mol Vis 15: 855-860. 

38 Bursell, SE et al. 1999. High-dose vitamin E supplementation normalizes retinal blood flow and creatinine clearance in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 22(8): 1245-1251. 

39 Garcia-Medina JJ, et al. 2011. A 5-year follow-up of antioxidant supplementation in type 2 diabetic retinopathy. Eur J Ophthalmol. 21(5):637-43. 

40 Satyanarayana A, et al. 2011. Status of B-vitamins and homocysteine in diabetic retinopathy: association with vitamin-B12 deficiency and hyperhomocysteinemia. PLoS One. 6(11):e26747. 

41 Berson EL et al. 2010 Clinical Trial of Lutein in Patients with Retinitis Pigmentosa Receiving Vitamin A. Arch Ophthalmol. 128(4): 403–411. 

42 Sandberg, MA et al. 2010. The Relationship of Macular Pigment Optical Density to Serum Lutein in Retinitis Pigmentosa. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 51(2): 1086-1091. 

43 Klein, M. L., P. J. Francis, et al. 2008. CFH and LOC387715/ARMS2 genotypes and treatment with antioxidants and zinc for age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 115(6): 1019-1025. 

44 Krebs-Smith, S. M., P. M. Guenther, et al. (2010). Americans do not meet federal dietary recommendations. J Nutr 140(10): 1832-1838. 

45 Renzi LM, Johnson EJ. 2007. Lutein and age-related ocular disorders in the older adult: a review. J Nutr Elder. 26(3-4):139-57. 

46 United States Department of Agriculture. 2008. Diet Quality of Older Americans in 1994-1996 and 2001-2002 as Measured by the Healthy Eating Index-2005. Nutrition Insight 41. 

47 Cordain, L., S. B. Eaton, et al. (2005). Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am J Clin Nutr 81(2): 341-354. 

48 Sommerburg, O., J. E. Keunen, et al. (1998). Fruits and vegetables that are sources for lutein and zeaxanthin: the macular pigment in human eyes. Br J Ophthalmol 82(8): 907-910. 

49 Gao, X., P. E. Wilde, et al. (2006). The maximal amount of dietary alpha-tocopherol intake in U.S. adults (NHANES 2001-2002). J Nutr 136(4): 1021-1026. 

50 Krebs-Smith, S. M., P. M. Guenther, et al. (2010). Americans do not meet federal dietary recommendations. J Nutr 140(10): 1832-1838.